Contents:
- monogamous or polygamous
- matriarchal or patriarchal
- lines of authority
- getting permission
- getting forgiveness
- roles and relationships
- kinship lines
- means of support
- family structure changes
- heritage
- totems
- passing news
- rules of inheritance
- mating and marriage
- grievances
- child-rearing
- choosing a vocation
- special days or events
- family changes
- self-defense
1.1 Is the family monogamous or polygamous? Describe the characteristics and conditions.
Many of the Songhai families are monogamous, but it is out of financial necessity and not choice. The men interviewed stated that they would like to have at least two wives and, as money was available, they would to continue to marry to the limit of four (status symbol). The men stated that it was better to have several wives because they could help each other with work and could provide for his needs when one of the wives was sick. However, it was also stated, by the men, that most women would prefer a monogamous situation, as trouble often arrives between wives.
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1.2Is the family matriarchal or patriarchal? Describe the head of the house.
The Songhai family is patriarchal. The father has the last word on all subjects. He has the say over clothing choices for the family, travel and the use of money. In marriage the husband takes the place of the wife's father, and she is obligated to obey. An older male is usually respectfully adressed as "baaba" rather than by his given name.
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1.3 What are the lines of authority in the family? Who makes decisions? How? When? Why?
The authority line in the family rests with the male of the family. Age is also a factor. If an older father, his sons and each of their families live in the same concession, the father is the one that makes the decisions for the concession. Each one of his sons makes the decisions for his own family, but respect is given to the opinions of the older father. It was stated that one's father was always one's father no matter what one's age. In the absence of a father, the authority falls to the eldest son or to the eldest brother of the father. The mother can make some of the unimportant decisions for the family in the absence of the father, but for permission to marry or the disposal of estates, the oldest brother of the father is consulted in the absence of the father.
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1.4 What are the expectations and rules for getting permission?
The father of the family is the one who can give permission. As in most other cultures, each family is different in the measure of control the father demands and ultimately has. Most female members of the family must have the male head of the household's permission to make purchases, visit or travel. One can ask the mother of the family to approach the father with a request, but she can not herself grant this request. The sons of the family enjoy more freedom and can come and go, for the most part, without permission. The sons are still required to gain permission for important requests. It is best to talk to the father when he is alone to gain permission. One can ask for permission three times. If the same request is refused three times, it is useless to ask again. It was stated that one has the choice to disobey one's parents, but one will be judged and punished by God for this disobedience. It was also stated that people who disobey their parents are not trusted and many times asked to leave the village.
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1.5 What are the expectations and rules for getting forgiveness?
Requests for forgiveness are rare. Children can ask forgiveness from their fathers, mothers or older siblings. If it is denied, then one can ask an uncle, grandfather or friend of the family to intercede, asking forgiveness in one's place. If the village were aware of what had been done, the request for forgiveness would need to be made in front of the entire village. If the situation was unknown by the village, one's request could be made in private. One would never ask anyone younger for forgiveness. When the men were asked if they would ask forgiveness from their wives, they were shocked. Some said it would be impossible for a man to do anything to his wife that would require forgiveness. Others just laughed at the questions and seemed embarrassed by the thought of asking forgiveness from their wives.
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1.6 What are the roles and consequent relationships between family members? Include husband, wife, children and relatives. What is the difference at different levels in the society and for the different ages? Who is responsible for whom, when and how?
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The typical Songhai family is an extended one. The value placed upon the importance and unity of this extended family is near universal. At the center of this family is the male head of household. It is upon him, most often, that the primary burden falls of keeping the family strong and whole. For a family's problems to become matters for public discussion is considered shameful. For this reason, problems tend to be resolved within the family.
Most of the men are subsistence farmers, though once members of a powerful and extensive empire. Despite their warrior past, they now determine such important matters as planting times, purchases of tools and other farming supplies, what livestock to keep and to trade, as well as numerous other matters of farm management. In the urban setting, the male head of household may earn an income by work outside of the household; he returns home with this money and saves or dispenses it to the benefit of the extended family. Other income earners, such as older, unmarried sons typically contribute their earnings, or a large part of their wages, to the benefit of the entire household. At the end of the millet harvest many of the Songhai men travel into neighboring countries to work, often the English speaking countries of Nigeria and Ghana.
The house is the responsibility of the mother. She is to take care of all family needs and provide for all needs of the father. She is important to the family as long as she is able to bear children. One proverb states, "The death of a dog in the compound is mourned more than the death of an infertile woman. If they are farm women, they may share in the planting and other farm chores. They may even have responsibility for certain small garden plots to raise a small crop of tomatoes, okra or beans. The pounding of millet and the drawing and carrying of water from wells to home also are chores that typically fall to the women of the family. In households with several wives, the women often share tasks or rotate the chores among themselves.
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As for the children, the eldest son is held in high esteem. The eldest son becomes responsible for the family in the absence or death of the father. The sons of the family will help the father in his work or business and may assist with making purchases in the market, running errands, fetching tools and tending livestock.
All children are to be quite and in their place, especially when the father is at home. Children are sometimes severely beaten for disobedience. It is said that "Children know haste; elders know patience." On the other hand, even very young children are allowed to freely roam the streets without supervision.
The daughters of the family start at the earliest age possible to help with the pounding of grain, carrying water, cooking and gathering wood. The daughters often start at the age of six or seven to help with the care of the younger brothers and sisters.
The male relatives of the father's side are very important to the family and are highly respected. Elders, be they male or female, are respected. After the age of 60, both the father and mother of the family retire. The younger female members of the family take over the responsibilities of the house, and the younger male members of family assume the financial responsibility for the parents.
As in other household affairs, elders, such as grandparents, are greatly respected, and their opinions and praise are often sought.
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1.7 Identify kinship lines and patterns of the extended family.
Very close ties exist for the extended family. The father's family is given the most respect and attention. When the father's older brother visits the family, the wife and children are expected to respect and obey this visitor. This respect may also be accorded to a younger brother out of respect for the father of the family. Many times the uncles of the father's side are treated as if they were fathers. Many families share their children; hence the word "father" may be one's biological father or reference to an uncle who raised a child. Many times, a child is sent to live with elderly family members to help take care of them. Homes are often occupied by three generations of a family, five to 30 people living in one concession. Close family friends may also be considered family members. One is always, without doubt, expected to help with the problems of the extended family. Children, who have the same mother and father as oneself, do have the closest family tie, but one must respect all children of one's father. If there is a divorce, children go to the husband's family when they are weaned.
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1.8 How do families support themselves in this culture? What are the traditional and non-traditional means of support?
The traditional means of support is farming and raising of livestock. Many young men stated that if given the choice, they would choose a good farm with lots of animals. Great respect is given a man who can bring in a good crop. Because of the drought and difficulties of farming and livestock, many have been forced into other work such as small-scale commerce, teaching or government jobs. One never refuses to help with the needs of another family member; this is unheard of!
The rise and fall of the populations of towns and cities in accordance with the seasonal farm tasks of planting and harvesting crops perhaps best illustrate the continued importance of agriculture. Songhai males in cities and towns might close shops, postpone tasks, or take leave of their office jobs to return to their natal villages to help with the crop.
In a typical rural community, many extended families, often bound by ties of kinship, live in a village of huts made of locally available materials -- mud brick construction with grass thatched roofs. Here too are special huts constructed for storing crops, the most important of which is millet. Corn, sorghum and beans are also important crops.
Dry- season gardening can be done in gardens on the river's shores or where a source of water is available to raise vegetables. The farm villagers' lives are shaped by the agricultural seasons, especially in making sure that there is an adequate harvest to see them through the year. The Songhai farm family brings surpluses and cash crops such as peanuts, yams, tomatoes, and okra to market towns and cities to sell. The farm family may also earn cash by raising and selling of livestock, fishing and by gathering and selling firewood.
The Songhai people are very proud, and they have a very strong work ethic. Work that was once done by slaves, including being a butcher, water seller, blacksmith or washer of clothes, would be difficult for the Songhai to do, but they would rather do any work than beg. Because of the desperate situation in all areas of Songhai population, many Songhai men are forced to leave their homes after harvest to search for work in neighboring countries. Each man will purchase clothing and other items needed by the family. Almost always he will return to his home with these purchases when the rains begin to work in his fields.
When a Songhai man has worked very hard doing a difficult, physical labor, he says that he has worked like a donkey.
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1.9 How does the family structure change as a result of death, marriage, separation, incapacity, incompetence or other significant changes?
Death -- Should the father die, the responsibility for the family falls upon the oldest male child. The mother of the family must mourn the death of her husband by resting in the house from 40 days to three months. After the period of mourning, the parents of the widow will probably arrange for another marriage and the children will be taken by the extended family of the father. If the mother dies, the widower will probably remarry. It is forbidden to scream or cry when a family member dies. Grief is expressed by not eating - usually for one or two days. The female members of the family cannot attend the burial ceremony, as they are considered too weak.
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Marriage -- A marriage in the family is a time of celebration and hardship. The Songhai cling to the marriage practices of the past even though they are a great financial burden to all concerned. Many times, a young man will spend up to six months wages on his marriage. Both the bride and groom's families are called upon to supply items that they cannot afford. The parents still make the choice of one's spouse, and it is very rare that a child would refuse their parents' choice. The Songhai would not consider a match with a Bella, Toureg or a Fulani.
On a different note, the second or subsequent marriage is a dreaded thing for most women. When the husband takes a second wife, it is as if he is saying that the first has not done her job. Conflict soon follows, and the financial burden on the family increases.
Divorce -- Divorce rate is high in Niger. In 1990, 44% of women in Niger were divorced once and 15% twice with the age at divorce fluctuating from 20- 24 years (Care 1990). Due to the high divorce rate and death rates in Niger, the average number of marriages for a woman in her lifetime is three. As in most things, the woman has no rights after a divorce. All children over the age of seven at the time of the divorce stay with the father. Children under seven at the time of divorce stay with the mother and are returned to the father when they reach the age of seven.
Incapacity or Incompetence- This situation is handled much as a death. The oldest son takes responsibility, if possible, and the extended family helps.
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1.10 How is a family's heritage passed from one generation to the next?
The family heritage is passed on in oral traditions. The young boys are taught to do the same work that their fathers and grandfathers have done. The young girls are taught to take care of children and the home. Detailed family histories are passed down from one generation to the next, and visits with the extended family are full of talk of the past. The Songhai are proud of their past when they were a strong and wealthy people; they are still are angry and suspicious of the Toureg people, who brought about the fall of their kingdom.
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1.11 Do families have totems? What are typical ones and how are they used?
Totems are objects conceived of as the emblems of a tribe, a clan or a family. A totem may be a carved object, a piece of land, a tree, a specific plant or a creature. Though the vast majority of Songhai are Muslim and their religion denounces idolatry, the superstitions associated with totems permeate the Songhai culture. Those interviewed categorically denied that the Songhai were animistic, but spoke freely of a plethora of spirits that controlled life, charms, family secrets and sorcery among their people.
Of those who admitted to having totems, many said their totems were animals. Some would not kill a snake because a snake had saved a family member's life and now had become the family totem. Some had purchased a goat, sheep or black chicken that was kept at the house as a genie. It was fed first, given clean water and never killed. This animal would keep evil from coming to the home and could also grant wishes and answer prayers. Some kept the skin of each year's Tabaski offering and believed it could bless the house. The family Koran, the holy book of Islam, may be particularly venerated and take on special significance beyond its ink and paper.
It was stated that each family had a secret item, verse or charm that brought power and protection to the household. The father of the family held the secret. It might be a walking stick, a gourd, a coin, a ring or other item. The secret could also be a verse from the Koran or an incantation learned from a spirit or ancestor. The father would watch his sons and decide which one was the wisest, most patient and intelligent. When the father was near death, the secret would be shared with the chosen son and continue in the family. The family secret was never shared outside the family or with the other family members. The family with the most money and possessions was assumed to have the strongest family secret.
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1.12 How is authentic news passed on within the family?
News is passed by word of mouth, by radio and by newspapers and magazines. The word of a family member is rarely doubted. The father is usually the one who brings the news home. If it is very important, he will call a family meeting and share with everyone at one time. If not, he will share the news with the wife, and she may inform the children. News from the radio and newspapers if verified by asking those who have left the village for education and returned if the news is true. The Zima in the village can cast shells to tell news or to verify the truth of reported happenings.
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1.13 What are the rules of inheritance?
In inheritance, the sons of the family are favored. Although the percentages were different, the sons always received the bulk of the estate with the girls receiving a token amount. Land is always passed on to the sons. The wives generally receive nothing, as a rule, and are expected to return to their families.
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1.14 What are the sexual and mating roles and rules in the family? What are marriage rites and rules?
All responded that the subject of sex is taboo and that they had never discussed it in their families. The marriage rites and rules are dominated by the exchange of money. The young man visits in the home of the young girl, and they agree to marry. Then, the groom sends a party to ask the father's permission and to deliver the first of the payments to the bride's family (50,000 CFA and up). Some of the payment is used to purchase the items that the young bride will take to her new home. The groom continues to purchase gifts (100,000 CFA and up) and provide money that is shared with the bride's family and friends (50,000 CFA and up). Most marriages are performed in accordance with Muslim tradition. The bride and groom are not present, and money again is paid for food to celebrate (50,000 CFA and up) and for payment to the Muslim priest (5,000 CFA and up) to bless the marriage. The bride is taken to the groom's home during the night by his sisters and a group of friends. The bride is expected to show sorrow in leaving her parents home. The wedding party takes place at the home of the groom to celebrate the arrival of the bride.
In some areas the custom to prove the bride's virginity is still practiced. After her arrival at the groom's home, most of the guests depart except for one friend of the bride and two or three friends of the groom who will remain in the house for the first night. It is the purpose of this group that remains to make sure the bride is a virgin. The bride's family provides a white cloth, and first sexual relations occur on this sheet. After the marriage is consummated, the friend of the bride is brought in and, along with the groom, the sheet is inspected. If it is spotted with blood, the bride and her friend return to her parent's house with the sheet. The next morning, a party is held at the bride's home, and an older woman takes the sheet around the village to prove the bride was a virgin. When night falls, the friends of the groom search for the bride again and bring her back to the groom where she will now make her home. If the sheet is not stained with blood, the groom and his friends take the bride and the sheet back to her parents. The groom has the right to demand his money back and to refuse the marriage. If the groom wishes, he can send his friends to get the bride that night to be brought to his home and allow her to remain as his wife. The male is not required to prove his virginity.
Among other groups of Songhai, pre-marital sexual relations are common. One is expected to be discrete and not bring shame on the family, such as becoming pregnant.
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1.15 How are grievances settled within a family? What are the rules concerning mistreatment, separation, divorce, or a mistress?
Grievances are handled for the most part within the extended family, and it is a disgrace for a family problem to be handled outside the family. The father, again, is in control, and his word is the last word. Children are left to settle disputes among themselves. If a problem between adults cannot be worked out between the two adults, an uncle or grandfather who is older than the two can be called in to settle the problem.
There are some insults that will cause instantaneous anger and conflict. One is to insult another person's mother. Another is to have a flip flop slung down before you or hit with it. The ultimate insult is to be compaired to a donkey or said to be descended from a donkey.
A wife can leave her husband if he is abusive, but many stay because she fears the consequences of leaving. Many parents will not allow their daughters to return and would force the daughter to go back to her husband. The husband would most likely beat her for leaving, so she chooses to stay. In most cases, the husband is the only one who can get a divorce. The father handles all cases of mistreatment in his family. If the wife is being mistreated, family members may call in the religious teacher, or the wife can return to her family and they will accept her back into their household. To get his wife back, the husband would then have to go to his wife's family or send his friends to ask for her return. The wife can also talk to the parents of her husband. If he is not providing for her and her children, the father will speak to his son to correct the matter. It was stated that if the wife goes to her husband's family three times to ask for help and the husband does not change, she is free to divorce him. It is not considered wrong for the man to beat his wife if she has been disobedient or disrespectful. If the disobedience or disrespect continues, a divorce is almost a certainty. The husband can also talk with the parents of his wife, but the common practice is to punish her himself.
Although in theory, it is bad to have a mistress, but it is an accepted practice. If the wife comes into contact with the mistress, there is trouble. Men are generally careful to keep this from happening.
It is said that it is better for the sanity of the husband to provide seperate houses for each wife and her children, and even better if these houses are in different villages.
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1.16 What are the child-rearing practices and traditions?
The physical care of the children is delegated entirely to the mother of the family. Older siblings also participate in childcare. The children of each family are very much a part of the larger community, and the parents let very young children leave the compound with the assumption that their neighbors or people in the street will help look after them.
Generally, children are breastfed for about two years or until the next pregnancy. Most communities do not believe in wet nurses should the mother of a breastfeeding infant die, because they believe that breast milk transmits the power to become a witch. Children are carried on the back of the mother or a sibling from one month of age until they can walk.
Community members have the right to discipline others' children, or they can return the child to their parents to be punished. Children are often dealt with harshly, and it is rare to see large amounts of affection bestowed on a child. The father is involved in the education of the child once he begins to learn how to work on the farm or to learn his father's profession. The mother takes full responsibility for the education of the daughters and teaches them to cook, to clean and to take care of younger brothers and sisters. It does not seem that the Songhai place much importance on formal education and the local school systems are very weak. Many children never attend school. The girls begin at a very early age to work, and the boys are left with much more free time to play with friends.
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1.17 How do children choose their life vocation, their role in the community?
Girls are expected to become wives and mothers. Boys, for the most part, are expected to follow their father's work. Depending on exposure to the outside world, some parents may allow their child to choose a profession. These parents make an effort to provide adequate education for the child. This is the exception, not the rule. Children or young people who wish to better themselves are allowed to, in most instances, but they do so by their own initiative. The child can gain an education and look for a modern job, but in so doing, they enter a world that their parents cannot understand. If a child is successful in his work, it is expected that he will help to provide for all of his family members. There is little chance for a well-educated person to find gainful employment in Niger. Many government jobs go for months without pay, and there is little successful, private enterprise.
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1.18 What are the special days or events for families?
The special days for the family center around the birth of a child and marriages. The naming ceremony of children is very important. Seven days after the birth of a child, the Muslim priest arrives to name the child and pronounce his blessings on the child. The marriage ceremony has been described above. Another special time for the family is the observance of the Muslim holidays. Those mentioned by the majority of respondents include the Feast Day of Ramadan, Tabaski and Molud. During these holidays, the family spends much time together. The family prepares special foods and will most likely purchase new clothing.
Even though all of the above is very financially taxing on the people, the celebration of each holiday is considered obligatory, and the family will go to great lengths to provided the needed items for each celebration. Many families are never out of debt as they continue to borrow and seek credit for each of the celebrations.
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1.19 How is the family changing?
The Songhai people have clung to their history, language and culture in a tenacious fashion. It is clear to observers of the culture that some of the Songhai youth are becoming westernized. It is also very clear that the majority of the Songhai people value their culture and have no intention of changing. As in all affairs, the male has been given more freedom to part with tradition while the female has been forced to maintain tradition. Most young men now choose western clothing, while the proper Songhai woman is still expected to wear traditional African dress. Males over the age of 40 are expected to dress in the traditional African clothing, if they wish to be respected.
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1.20 How does an individual defend himself or herself within the family?
Respect is always given to age. One can ask for the father to intervene in a situation. Or one may seek an older member of the extended family to act as an intermediary. Violence is common, and both men and women will hit each other. It is against all rules of good conduct to strike one's parent. In the rare case where this has happened, the child is forced from the family and his village. It might be possible to return after several years of separation and seek the pardon of the family, but pardon is not guaranteed. Most respondents had never known anyone who had struck their parent.
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The vast majority of the information in this worldview was as result of interviews compiled by the Songhai People Group Team with Songhai, March - June 2000. We have continued to update the material and correct it, as needed, as we observe and participate in their daily life.
Paul Stoller's many works and impressions of the Songhai people give valuable, detailed insight into their religious practices. All comments or quotes written in italics type have been taken specifically from the book "In Sorcery's Shadow", by Paul Stoller and Cheryl Olkes, The University of Chicago Press, 1987.
We do not claim to be professional ethnographers, nor anthropologists. This paper is simply a compilation of our observations, what we have read, and what we understand about the Songhai at this time, by the grace of God. We continue to learn much daily.
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