Contents:
- organization of society
- relationships between families, making friends
- one's place in the village
- relationships to foreigners
- real estate
- becoming an adult
- individual and group rights
- leaders
- values
- taboos
- traditions
- art forms
- learning preferences
- communication
- news dissemination
- education about society's rules
- education
- vocational respect ladder
- marriage relationship
- dress
- law and order
- medical care
2.1 How is the society of a community organized? What are the typical, common homogenous and heterogeneous facets of society?
Although there is an elected government in place, the power and organization of the community is based upon tribal traditions. However, continuing the French colonial organization, Niger is divided into several departments (states) and then each department into many small cantons (counties). Each canton elects its own chief. After his election, he generally, will remain the chief for his lifetime. Upon his death, someone from his family will generally be elected the new chief. If more than one of his brothers or sons desire the position, an election is held in the canton to choose the new chief, who in turn will be chief until his death. Each village that is in the canton will also have its own chief who functions under the chief of the canton. Larger villages can be divided into areas (neighborhoods), with each area having its chief who functions under the chief of the village and chief of the canton. Most village chiefs have helpers who coordinate work such as cleaning the village streets, working in the fields and construction of community buildings. The next group, in order of authority, would be the elders of the village, followed by the fathers of each family. Many times a woman in the village will be given the responsibility of organizing large meals for community gatherings and for keeping the village clean. The religious leaders are responsible for prayers, religious celebrations and the Koranic schools. They are generally not heavily involved in the governing of the community unless the matter is religious, such as divorce.
The men of the community work and communicate together as a group. It is said that when two men eat together, they will build trust and confidence in each other. Men control both the home and the market, though women know how to assert their wishes as well! The women and young children form another group of the community. The women often are involved in group projects and village work. Both the older children and youth have their own groups. The women and men of the community mix only at marriages and baptisms. The women are allowed into village meetings and can ask questions of their leaders.
Songhai communities would also have a sorcerer. It was stated that 99% of the people in the villages would consult the sorcerer for help, but most would not admit to the practice. One stated that God would provide after death, but that the sorcerer was there to help during one's life. Another stated that it was God who had given the power to all sorcerers, charms and other magic practiced, thus validating their use.
In each community there is also a class system in place. There are nobles, direct descendants of Askia Mohammed Touré, commoners, and merchants who are described as "hard, unrelenting, and merciless". They are said to have great economic power, yet lack respect from their fellow Songhai.
2.2 How do different families relate to each other? How do families meet other families in the community? What are the rules of meeting and making friends?
A new person who comes to the village should look for the chief and get his permission to move into the village. The Songhai would not give permission to a Fulani or Bella to live in their village, but they would be allowed to live outside the village if they worked with the animals of the Songhai. Most people are friendly and welcoming to a new person, but it does take time to make friends. In smaller villages, most of the people are related to one another in some way. In this type of village it may be harder for a newcomer to gain acceptance. One starts to make friends by greeting people in the street or finding the place in the village where people gather to talk. Men are friends with men, women with women.
Children and women are not allowed to talk to men unless the man greets them. This is changing with the younger generation and in the larger cities where women are free to talk to men and may become friends. The father of the family may forbid his family members to have friends from families with bad reputations. Many of the men are friends from childhood. The women do not have much time to spend on friendships. They tend to be closer to the women who live in the next house or hut or even with the co-spouses of their husband.
2.3 How is one's place in a village society or a community determined? Is there a caste system or other type of structure within the culture?
A person's place in the village or society is determined by his ancestors' former place. If a person has slaves as ancestors, he would be at the lower end of society. If one's ancestors were chiefs or in other ways important in the village, one would also be important. Respect is given to age and wisdom. One may lose one's place in the village if one is unwise or makes trouble. Placement in Songhai society is also determined by the work that a person and his family do. The older Songhai would never do the work that they consider to be the work of a slave, unless there was not another choice. This would include selling water, cleaning clothes or working with metal. Such men also disdain the tasks of cooking and tending to their children. With the younger generation, such occupational taboos are becoming less important.
2.4 How does society relate to foreigners? Foreigners from another city, another race, another tribe, another country? What are the attitudes and rules of relating?
The white man provokes a mixture of reactions. One person still feared the French because he felt that there was still a possibility that the French would take him or some of his family away from their home and not allow them to return. It seems that the people divide foreigners into two categories: French and other nationalities. The French for the most part are disliked and associated with the colonial era. Other foreigners are seen a source of aid. It is hard for the African to see a white person as a real friend and not a source for meeting every need.
It is very important for the Songhai that one pay frequent visits to their home, especially during celebrations and times of tragedy. They also respect very much someone who will enter into their daily lives, learn their language and culture and display an attitude of acceptance. One should do much listening in the beginning of building relationships; this is considered the wise and respectful thing to do. One might participate in the community planting and harvesting work. Foreigners and strangers (other than a Songhai) who desire to live in the Songhai village are assigned to the 'zongo kwaara', a neighborhood set-aside for the newly arrived person.
It was stated that the Songhai people hold Americans in high esteem. The responders felt that Americans, in general, do not feel that they are better than the African. It was also stated the Americans are fair and honest in their everyday dealings.
As for other Africans, the Songhai people are normally open, curious and hospitable. Once an African from another county has the permission of the chief to stay, other community members seem to be helpful to the newcomer. It was repeated many times that the newcomer must prove himself before real friendship could develop.
At the same time, the Songhai people do bear prejudices against other tribes and cultures, and in general, are a very proud people:
- The Housa are useful for meat butchering.
- The Bella and Fulani are useful for slave labor -- field help and shepherding.
- The Toureg are despised for their pivotal role in the downfall of the Songhai Empire.
2.5 How is real estate handled? What are the rules of ownership, selling and buying?
Much of the land in Niger has been passed down from father to son for many generations. In Niamey and other larger cities, there is a formal process through the mayor's office for purchasing and selling land. When a family plot is being sold, all members of the family must be in agreement. Land can be purchased from an individual or from the government. In many of the smaller villages, land is purchased through the chief. In some cases there is proof of ownership through the local government offices, but much of the land is bought and sold by verbal agreement only. Land is usually passed down to the sons. Women do not usually own land, although there are some more modern women who have begun to purchase land.
2.6 How does an individual become an adult? Are there rules of recognition and rites of passage? At what age or ages do they occur? What are the circumstances of their occurrence?
For the female, adulthood comes with the first menstrual period and later, marriage. Although the ages given for female adulthood ranged from 12 to 20 years, it was always agreed among those interviewed that the female becomes an adult before the male. For the male, adulthood comes with marriage and his ability to support a family. The ages given for male adulthood ranged from 15 to 25 years. Going away to school or finding a job in another country would cause others to consider the male an adult sooner. The eldest son often is considered an adult after the death of his father, even if he is still relatively young.
2.7 What rights do individuals have within a community, within society? What right do families have? What rights do clans have within society? What rights do males have? What rights do females have?
There is much freedom within a village, though all people are subject to the authority of the chief. Within the family, the rights of males are subject to the family as a whole, but especially to the will of one's father, uncles, older brothers and village leaders. Females are subject to their husbands, brothers, elders, etc. Females have few rights, although they can have influence. Men and women in the city have more individual rights than those in the village, especially those on their own. Fathers and brothers can still exert influence in decision making for those in the city on their own; if the father or older brother insists, for example, that a younger brother come home, he must come home.
There is a measure of freedom in the culture, but there is also a place for each person, and he or she is subject to a line of authority. The female always finds herself in a submissive role, although the Songhai woman seems to have a more respected role than that of her Zerma counterpart. The male is required to submit to age and family ties. For persons to find their places in the society, they must follow the traditions of the community and of the family structure.
2.8 How are leaders chosen? Who is eligible? When are they eligible?
In the traditional Songhai society, the leader or chief always comes from the same family of nobles. The nobles are descended from Asika Mohammed Toure (Asika the Great), King of the Songhai Empire during its greatest period from 1493- 1527. The current chief remains in power until his death. When he dies, only members of his extended family can take his place. If more than one family member desires the position, an election is held. The oldest son of the chief is usually favored as his replacement. A newly elected or appointed chief is generally between the ages of 30 and 40 years. To be a chief, one must be male and be married.
For government positions in Niger, by constitutional law, all are eligible and are chosen by vote. Due to the Islamic and cultural influences of the country, it is hard, but not impossible, for a woman to gain an office.
A leader's qualifications include wisdom, age, intelligence and integrity. Generally, traditional chiefs and systems are considered more important by the Songhai than by elected government officials, although some of the youth may respect the elected government over traditional leaders, depending on their education.
2.8.1 Under what conditions and by what rules are traditional leaders chosen?
Traditional leadership comes from the same family and passes from father to oldest son in many cases. Government leaders are chosen by vote for a specific period of time. Sometimes other government leaders appoint them.
2.8.2 How are leaders recognized by society, by the community?
The traditional leader of a village is given much respect. In the more traditional areas, a person must remove his or her shoes in his presence, and it is forbidden to touch him. One must bow when approaching him and never turn one's back. He is usually dressed in a grand boubou, his head covered by a hat or turban. He usually carries a staff or cane of some type. He also has a special chair to sit on or pile of rugs and cushions. It is the customary for his assistants to travel with him. If one wishes to be accepted into a village, he is required to show respect to and earn the endorsement of the chief.
2.8.3 How are leaders changed?
In the area from Niamey to Gotheye, the traditional chief can be removed from his place of authority, but this is very difficult and rare. If a chief becomes to old or sick to carry on his duties, he may then request that one of his family members replace him before his death. The leaders of a village can request the canton chief or the government of Niger to replace a chief if there are many problems with him. Although this action is possible, it is a rare occurrence.
Government changes, both local and national, come from military removal, votes, end of terms or removal by the president or other government official.
2.8.4 What are the rights and responsibilities of leaders?
The leaders are responsible for the well-being of their villagers. They serve as judges during disputes. They attend all district meetings and make sure that their village's needs are represented and met. They preside over grain distributions and other aid activities. They listen to their people and try to understand their needs and desires. They play host to visitors to the village, giving them a place to stay and food to eat. They handle the sale of land, divorce decrees and other legal matters for their people. They are available to give advice in all situations. Leaders bring news from the outside for their people and inform them of the decisions made in the meetings that they attend.
2.8.5 How do leaders lose the right to lead?
Most people responded that a chief only looses his power either by his death or by his choice. There remains the possibility of removing a chief who is dishonest or unfair, but the offenses must be very serious and repeated many times for this drastic measure to occur.
2.8.6 How do individuals relate to their leaders?
The leader of the village is treated with respect. The village chief is available to his people and most are on friendly terms with all that live in the village. The chief of the canton is less accessible. One must have an appointment to speak with him. He is much more formal in his dealings with those who call upon him.
2.8.7 How do leaders relate to other leaders in the culture?
Village chiefs are generally on equal footing with other village chiefs. Most seem to get along well. The canton chief demands respect from the village chiefs. On paper in the country of Niger, the central, elected or military government has more authority than traditional government, but in practice, it is the traditional leaders who make most of the decisions. Great problems and friction occur if the central government tries to enforce an unpopular change or tries to pass a law or decision that is contrary to the wishes of the traditional system.
2.9 What are the basic values within society that give it cohesion and security?
The extended family unit is the most cohesive force of the Songhai culture, rather than the individual or nuclear family unit. Respect is given the aged members of the family. Most family members are willing to join in the care of other family members in need. The values instituted by Islam through the Koran are another binding factor in Songhai society. Most people agree on what is right and what is wrong. They also agree on the punishment necessary for those who break the rules of the Songhai society. People are generally content if their basic daily needs are meet. They have learned, for the most part, to be content with little. There seems to be a true community spirit in each village. The care of children is often a community responsibility, and the joy and sorrow of a member of the village are seen as one's own.
2.10 What are the basic taboos within society?
- The respondents stated that the strongest taboo in Songhai society is lying. It is only the worst kind of person who will tell a lie.
- One must never strike one's mother or father. If this happens, one must leave the village for several years. One may then return to ask for forgiveness. A pardon may be granted, but if the person ever repeats the offense he or she must never return.
- One must never take advantage, in any way, of an old person. To steal from or hurt an elderly person is one of worst offenses one can commit.
- Stealing is not permitted and is punishable by severe beating or sometimes death if the thief is caught.
- One must not use the left hand for eating or for passing things. One must only eat with the right hand.
- Men and women should not show affection in public.
- Sexual matters must not be discussed.
- One should never cause problems in someone else's family.
- The wife may not call her husband by his name. A child should not call his parent by their names.
- One must not talk while eating. Men and women do not eat together. (Some families would allow this if the children were not present).
- One must not tell someone his or her baby is cute, as it is believed to bring evil upon the child.
- In more traditional communities, one must not reveal knees or upper legs.
- One must not look an elder in the eyes, but must cast eyes downward.
- One must not put both hands on one's head or something bad will occur, such as the death of a family member.
- A woman must not sleep on her stomach or she will become sterile.
- One must not walk in front of another who is praying; it is disrespectful.
- One must never wave at a person with open fingers, for this is a curse.
- One must not discipline children if their parents are present.
- One must not harm an animal that belongs to another person.
- One must not play cards for money or otherwise gamble.
- One must not drink alcohol.
- A male must not shake the hand of a married woman.
- A village must not have more than one Friday mosque.
2.11 What are common traditions within society?
The traditions of the society center on the marriage and the naming ceremony (baptism) of the babies of the family. Marriage traditions have been discussed.
A woman will only discuss pregnancy with her husband in an indirect manner. She may tell him she is sick at her stomach, but will not tell him that she is pregnant. She may discuss her pregnancy with her closest friend, but not openly with other women in the village. After the first three months, she will start to go to the doctor and, though others will know she is pregnant, she will not discuss her pregnancy.
With the birth of the first child, a woman will return to her parents' house one month before the birth. She will stay with her parents for two months after the birth. With subsequent births, she will stay at her own home during childbirth. It is customary for a mother or other female family member to come to her house and stay for 40 days to help with the newborn and household work.
It is the responsibility of the father to purchase a 100-kg sack of millet, wood for heating water, 20 or 30 bars of assorted soaps and six meters of material for a new dress for the naming ceremony. The millet is pounded, and spices and sugar are added. The mixture is then boiled in water to a drinking consistency. This beverage is prepared each morning for the mother and her female visitors. The sack of millet is usually enough to make the beverage for about two weeks. It is believed that by drinking this beverage that the milk of the mother is increased and guaranteed. It is also guaranteed to fatten her up, a good thing for the Songhai, as they believe the larger, more obese a woman is, the more beautiful she is. The soap is cut into very small pieces, pounded and mixed with a little water in a bucket to become hard again. For bathing during the months following the birth, this soap is used by the mother and child.
After the birth and before the naming ceremony, the father passes the Muslim priest's house and is given two or three names to choose from. Before the naming ceremony, the father will choose the name, but he will tell no one until the day of the ceremony. Seven days after the birth, very early in the morning, a barber is brought to the home to shave the head of the child. Most informants did not know why the head of the baby was shaved. They knew that it was the tradition and must be followed, but did not know the significance of the practice. One suggested that the baby would have headaches if the head were not shaved. Another respondent said a shaved head was proof that the child was not illegitimate. Another respondent said it helped the baby to be smart. Yet another person said it stated in the Koran that it was a sin not to shave the head of a newborn.
Despite the misunderstanding of the custom, it is widespread. The hair is buried, or it is mixed with millet and a charm is made of it; it is then worn by the infant around his own neck. This charm is to protect the child from evil spirits. Then the Muslim priest reads from the Koran and leads the group gathered at the house in prayer. The priest will then demand the name of the child, and the father will tell all gathered the name he has chosen. The entire group prays again for God to bless the child. This time they use the child's name. The Priest is then given money, dates and cola nuts for payment for his blessings. Following this, breakfast is served to all that have attended the ceremony. Everyone then returns home, returning again at lunch to eat again and to celebrate the naming of the child. The afternoon is passed in drinking tea, talking, playing cards and listening to music. During the day, the mother and the newborn stay inside the hut and do not participate in the events. The female visitors go in the hut to congratulate the mother and to see the child. They also help with the preparation of the meals. The guests leave before supper.
Observance of Muslim religious holidays is also ingrained in the traditions of the Songhai society, as are such animistic practices as possession dances.
2.12 What are the valued arts or art forms in society?
The majority of the people listed water pots and woven mats as being typical decorative items made and appreciated by the Songhai. Drummers, singers, and storytellers hold a special place in the society as they participate in the possession dances and other practices of sorcery. Little time and effort is available for artistic indulgence. Many homes are decorated with purchased items such as brightly colored enamel pots, carved calabashes, wooden spoons, plastic bowls and buckets, or other kinds of household possessions which are also used on a daily basis.
2.13 What are the learning preferences of the people? Are most of the people oral communicators or are they mostly literate communicators?
The vast majority of Songhai people communicate orally, rather than by written words. They learn through listening and discussion, oral instruction, observation and apprentice-like, real life situations. Stories, music and riddles are repeated to convey the wisdom of the culture. If the person living in the country of Niger were educated, it would most likely be by the French school system. Because of the inadequacies of the public school, most literate people read at a very low level, comprehending little.
Most interviewees believed the Songhai language very difficult to read or to write, and indeed, it is not a written language. Colonizing French began trying to write Zarma / Songhai using French spellings and alphabet to approximate word sounds. In the mid-1900's others began to study the Zarma / Songhai, attempting dictionaries and other written materials, including Bible translation. Currently, writers of Songhai materials in Niger follow no specific rules for Songhai grammar or spelling; they use the same guidelines the DAFA employees use for Zarma, which were drawn up in the 1966 Bamako Conference.
2.14 How is communication carried out? With whom? What are the rules?
Communication is, for the most part, oral. The men of the village often meet and share the news in a determined place in the village-- under a certain tree or a hanger in the center of the village. If the news is very important, the men may return to their homes following the meeting, and share the news with all family members. Otherwise, he will share the news only with his wives. They will in turn share the news with their children. Communication most always flows from the male and elders down to the younger members of the home or village. To the western observer, Songhai communication seems indirect, but in actuality, it is much more direct and honest than communication within other related people groups. A messenger is often sent to deliver a message. Body language and gestures are very important elements in communication. Within the past several years, radio and television have become increasingly important means of communication.
2.15 What are the channels for news? Who can bear news? How? When and how is news recognized as official and authentic? Is there a certain place, time or art form whereby truth or authentic and authoritative news is given to the community?
Official government communications in the capital of Niger are carried on radio or television. This communication then spreads into many of the outlying areas of the country. In smaller villages, drummers are still used by the majority of the village chiefs. These men travel through the village while beating their drums. They stop at intervals and deliver the news from the chief. This news from the radio, television and village drummer is considered official, but many times confirmation is requested of a respected person in the village. Gossip is confirmed by a wise and reliable source in the village or by a number of people who will agree the news is the truth.
2.16 How are individuals "educated" concerning rules within the community, society and the culture?
Children are educated about the rules of their society by the family. The mother and father have the primary task of education; they are helped in this task by uncles, aunts, cousins, in-laws and grandparents. The teachers of the Koranic schools also help to form the rules of the community and to instruct their pupils. In larger towns, would-be Koranic students, who have been taken from the village setting and entrusted to the care of the Muslim priest by naive parents, are sometimes reduced to homeless children who beg on the streets to support the dishonest cleric.
2.17 How are individuals educated? Is there a formal education system such as schools? Is it for everyone? Is it pervasive? Is it respected? Is it effective?
We encountered many varied opinions on education. Some families make education a high priority for their children and send them to various private schools in Niamey or other large cities. Many of those who live in smaller villages either see no need for education or have become disheartened by the poor public school system. Still others prefer koranic schools. It seems that again, more emphasis has been placed on the education of young boys. But one also finds young girls with a desire to learn. The educational system of Niger, organized during the colonial period in much the same manner as that of France, at all levels from kindergarten to university, is plagued by lack of funds and by strikes of both teachers and students. In general, a greater majority of people older than 40 cannot read; a greater majority of those younger than 40 can read. Literacy rates vary from village to village.
2.18 Describe the vocational respect ladder within society? What are the levels?
It seems that government workers and farmers have about the same level of respect among the Songhai. When government workers received their salary on a regular basis, they were better respected than at present, now that their salaries are in arrears. A farmer with good crops and lots of animals still receives a great deal of respect in the Songhai culture. Any worker who has a regular salary commands respect. The higher the salary...the greater the respect. For most young women, the highest goal is to be married and to have children. There are many jobs that the Songhai feels are beneath them, but most stated that they would do anything rather than be dishonest or beg. However, for some people begging is a much more respectful career than making fari masa or pushing a water cart.
2.19 Describe how the society looks upon marriage? What are the rules in society concerning courtship, engagement, marriage and divorce?
Most of the ceremony of marriage has been described elsewhere. The Songhai society places great significance upon marriage. A woman that reaches the age of 20 and still is not married is looked down upon. One man stated that if he saw a woman of 20 whom was not married, he knew that there was a problem. Marriage also brings respect and authority to the male. Divorce is a common practice and, in almost all cases, it is the man who initiates the divorce. In many rural areas, he simply throws the woman out of the house and refuses to let her return. In other villages, the chief issues a divorce. In larger cities, one may obtain papers of divorce from the mayor's office.
2.20 What are the rules of dress within society?
In recent years, young, educated Songhai men have made a major change in their dressing habits. Nowadays they wear jeans or dress pants and untucked shirts (called a "thank you"), because they are much cheaper than the traditional African clothing. Even though the change in clothing for men is accepted, the traditional African dress is still preferred by older men and by officials (both traditional and governmental) and commands great respect.
Women have not made a change to western dress for the most part. The most respectful women will cover all but the face and hands. Married women are required to wear a head covering as a sign of respect to their husband. A larger veil is worn on top of this head covering when she leaves the privacy of her home to show her submission to Allah. One can see any fashion in Niamey, but the women who wear short dresses, pants or tight clothing are looked down upon by the vast majority of the Songhai.
2.21 Describe law and order within society? Structure? Processes?
The chief of the village is in charge of maintaining law and order. Most problems will be handled by the families involved or by the chief and his helpers. If the problem cannot be solved, the police may be called. In larger cities, the police are used more frequently. Mob justice is accepted. Thieves are caught and punished by beating. Sometimes they are put to death. There is a formal legal system in place, but many do not trust it and claim that enough money can change any decision. The buddy system is also in place. If one knows someone in the police or a government official, one can get almost anything done. It is widely believed that current day problems are a result of lack of faithfulness to Islamic belifs.
2.22 Describe medical care within the society? Type? Structure? Practitioners?
From a western viewpoint, medical care is woefully inadequate. The National Hospital of Niamey is a true nightmare and is plagued by lack of medicine, supplies and personnel. Larger villages from Niamey to Tera have small clinics that are staffed by medical personnel with very limited training (usually a state nurse, which is a three year degree after high school, heads up the clinic and certified nurses, similar to an American nurse's aide, will help). These clinics have no running water or electricity. They are responsible for the health care of the town in which they are located and the surrounding populations. Some medicines are dispensed by these clinics; prescriptions are written for the more expensive medicines, if there is a pharmacy in the town or dispensary at the clinic. At these clinics one can receive treatment for illnesses, as well as prenatal check-ups, well baby care, vaccinations, health teachings and demonstrations on a variety of subjects from family planning to water purification. Surgery is only done in Niamey or Tera. Most people are unable to purchase needed medicines, so they take their prescriptions to their white employers or aid projects.
Most Songhai people still use a wide range of traditional medicines. These traditional medical practices are passed down through the females of the family. The grandmother of each family usually has a store of traditional medicines that she will dispense to treat her family.
Animistic doctors (witch doctors) are also still prevalent; cures can be purchased from them, as well as from Muslim priests. These traditional healers practice alongside the clinic nurses, usually without anger or rivalry. Many children die from easily treatable disease symptoms such as diarrhea and dehydration. The importance of primary health care, which includes vaccinations and check-ups, is unknown or not appreciated for many reasons.
Sicknesses are divided into white-man's diseases and others that are spirit-based. Types of illness fluctuate with the season, however, malaria, respiratory infections, amoebic and bacterial dysentery, cholera, meningitis, urinary infections, birthing complication, skin infections, parasitic infections, polio and measles are common. Recent data from WHO reported a decrease in the average life span for a Nigerien from 45 years to 29.1.
Common sources of health problems:
- Lack of money to pay medical bills
- Lack of availability/ accessibility of trained medical personnel and clinics
- Lack of prenatal care
- Improper waste disposal
- Lack of latrine usage
- Hunger and malnutrition
- Low literacy rates (about 10%)
- Harsh climate
- Lack of primary care
- Lack of or poor water sources
The vast majority of the information in this worldview was as result of interviews compiled by the Songhai People Group Team with Songhai, March - June 2000. We have continued to update the material and correct it, as needed, as we observe and participate in their daily life.
Paul Stoller's many works and impressions of the Songhai people give valuable, detailed insight into their religious practices. All comments or quotes written in italics type have been taken specifically from the book "In Sorcery's Shadow", by Paul Stoller and Cheryl Olkes, The University of Chicago Press, 1987.
We do not claim to be professional ethnographers, nor anthropologists. This paper is simply a compilation of our observations, what we have read, and what we understand about the Songhai at this time, by the grace of God. We continue to learn much daily.